Altitude significantly affects endurance in long-distance running due to the reduced availability of oxygen. Here’s a detailed breakdown of how altitude impacts performance:

• Reduced Oxygen Availability
  • At higher altitudes, the atmospheric pressure is lower, which leads to a decrease in the partial pressure of oxygen. This means less oxygen is available for each breath, a condition known as hypoxia.
  • The reduced oxygen supply makes it more challenging for the body to deliver adequate oxygen to muscles, limiting their efficiency and endurance.
• Physiological Adaptations
  • Increased Breathing Rate: To compensate for the lower oxygen levels, the body increases the breathing rate to take in more oxygen.
  • Elevated Heart Rate: The heart pumps faster to circulate oxygenated blood more quickly, which can lead to quicker fatigue.
  • Enhanced Red Blood Cell Production: Over time, the body produces more red blood cells to improve oxygen transport, a process stimulated by increased levels of erythropoietin (EPO). This adaptation helps improve performance after acclimatization.
• Immediate Impact on Performance
  • In the short term, athletes may experience reduced performance at altitude due to the sudden drop in oxygen availability. This often manifests as a decrease in VO₂ max (the maximum amount of oxygen the body can utilize during exercise), which directly impacts endurance.
  • Muscle fatigue sets in quicker, and recovery times may be longer due to the strain of working with less oxygen.
• Long-Term Adaptations
  • With sufficient time at altitude, athletes can experience improved performance at sea level due to the physiological adaptations that enhance oxygen transport and utilization.
  • This principle is often used in training regimens, where athletes “live high, train low”, living at high altitudes to benefit from the adaptations and training at lower altitudes to maintain high-intensity workouts.
• Risks and Challenges
  • Some runners may experience altitude sickness, characterized by headaches, nausea, and fatigue, which can further impair performance.
  • The body’s adaptation period varies, and insufficient time to acclimate can lead to decreased endurance and overall performance during races at high altitudes.

Altitude poses a challenge to endurance in long-distance running by limiting oxygen availability, but with proper acclimatization, athletes can adapt and potentially gain a competitive edge when returning to lower altitudes.

During the Gupta period (approximately 320 to 550 CE), administration was characterized by a highly organized and efficient system that contributed to the prosperity and stability of the empire. Here are the main aspects of how administration was conducted:

1. Central Administration

Monarchical System: The Gupta Empire was ruled by a king, often considered divine or semi-divine, who held supreme authority. The king was the central figure in governance, with ultimate control over the military, judiciary, and administrative functions.

Council of Ministers: The king was assisted by a council of ministers (Mantriparishad), who advised on various matters of state. These ministers were often from noble families or scholars well-versed in administrative affairs.

2. Provincial Administration

Division into Provinces: The empire was divided into provinces (Bhukti), each governed by a provincial governor (Uparika), who acted as the king’s representative.

Viceroys: Often, members of the royal family were appointed as viceroys to ensure loyalty and effective governance in these provinces.

Districts and Villages: Provinces were further divided into districts (Vishaya), governed by district officers (Vishayapati). These districts comprised multiple villages, which were the smallest administrative units.

3. Local Administration

Village Autonomy: Villages had a considerable degree of autonomy, with village councils (Grama Sabha) managing local affairs, including the collection of taxes and maintenance of law and order. These councils included elders and local leaders who were respected members of the community.

Tax Collection: Villages were responsible for collecting taxes, which were then forwarded to the district authorities. Taxes were often paid in kind, such as grains, cattle, or produce.

4. Judicial Administration

King as Chief Justice: The king was the highest judicial authority, with the power to pass final judgments. However, local disputes were typically resolved by village assemblies or district courts.

Dharma and Smriti: The judicial system was based on Dharma (moral law) and Smriti (legal texts), which were interpretations of ancient scriptures and customs.

Role of Officials: Officers like Mahadandanayaka (chief judicial officer) and Amatya (minister) played significant roles in judicial matters.

5. Military Administration

Standing Army: The Gupta Empire maintained a well-organized standing army to protect the empire and expand its territories. The military included infantry, cavalry, chariots, and elephants.

Feudal Lords: Local chiefs and feudal lords often provided additional military support in exchange for land grants or other privileges.

6. Revenue Administration

Land Revenue: The primary source of revenue was land tax, which was usually a share of the produce. The rate could vary depending on the fertility of the land and local customs.

Other Taxes: In addition to land revenue, taxes were collected on trade, irrigation, and professional services. Merchants and artisans contributed to the state’s income through these levies.

7. Economic and Trade Administration

Flourishing Trade: The Gupta period saw significant trade, both inland and overseas, which was facilitated by efficient road networks and ports.

Regulation: Trade and commerce were regulated to ensure the prosperity of the empire. Guilds played a crucial role in economic administration, managing the production and trade of goods.

The Gupta administration was a blend of centralization and decentralization, ensuring both control and flexibility, which contributed to the overall stability and prosperity of the empire during its golden age.

Sikhism places a strong emphasis on the concept of equality, rooted deeply in its core teachings and practices. Here’s how it approaches equality:

1. Equality of All Humans

Universal Brotherhood: Sikhism teaches that all humans are equal, regardless of caste, creed, gender, or race. This belief is founded on the idea that the same divine spark resides in every individual.

Rejection of Caste System: Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism, openly condemned the caste system, which was prevalent in India during his time. He emphasized that no one is superior or inferior by birth.

2. Gender Equality

Empowerment of Women: Sikhism advocates for gender equality. Women are regarded as equal to men in all aspects of life, including spiritual, social, and religious domains.

Participation in Religious Activities: Women have the right to participate fully in religious ceremonies and can lead prayers and recite from the Guru Granth Sahib, the Sikh holy scripture.

3. Langar (Community Kitchen)

Symbol of Social Equality: The institution of Langar serves as a practical manifestation of equality in Sikhism. In Langar, everyone sits together, regardless of social status, to share a common meal prepared and served by volunteers.

Breaking Social Barriers: This practice breaks down social and economic barriers and reinforces the concept of unity and equality.

4. Teachings of the Gurus

Guru Nanak’s Teachings: Guru Nanak preached the message of one God and the equality of all human beings, encouraging his followers to rise above superficial divisions.

Guru Granth Sahib: The Sikh scripture, Guru Granth Sahib, contains verses from various saints, not just Sikh Gurus, emphasizing the universal message of equality and inclusion.

5. Equality in Worship

Open Gurdwaras: Sikh places of worship, called Gurdwaras, are open to everyone, irrespective of their background. There are no restrictions on who can enter and participate in prayers and community services.

Through these principles and practices, Sikhism actively promotes a society where all individuals are treated with equal respect and dignity.

Pluto is not considered a planet because it does not meet all the criteria defined by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) in 2006 for a celestial body to be classified as a planet. Here are the three criteria set by the IAU for a celestial body to be considered a planet:

1. Orbit around the Sun: The body must orbit the Sun.
2. Sufficient Mass for a Nearly Round Shape: The body must have sufficient mass for its gravity to pull it into a nearly round (hydrostatic equilibrium) shape.
3. Clear the Neighborhood around its Orbit: The body must have cleared its orbit of other debris, meaning it must be gravitationally dominant in its vicinity.

While Pluto meets the first two criteria (it orbits the Sun and is nearly round), it fails the third criterion. Pluto shares its orbit with other objects in the Kuiper Belt, a region of the Solar System beyond Neptune filled with icy bodies and debris. It has not cleared its neighborhood of other celestial bodies. Because of this, Pluto was reclassified as a dwarf planet rather than a full-fledged planet. The reclassification demoted Pluto from its status as the ninth planet of the Solar System to one of the many dwarf planets.

Differences between Fundamental Rights and Fundamental Duties are: